Ivermectin binding sites in human and invertebrate Cys-loop receptors

Ivermectin is a gold standard antiparasitic drug that has been used successfully to treat billions of humans, livestock and pets. Until recently, the binding site on its Cys-loop receptor target had been a mystery. Recent protein crystal structures, site-directed mutagenesis data and molecular modelling now explain how ivermectin binds to these receptors and reveal why it is selective for invertebrate members of the Cys-loop receptor family. Combining this with emerging genomic information, we are now in a position to predict species sensitivity to ivermectin and better understand the molecular basis of ivermectin resistance. An understanding of the molecular structure of the ivermectin binding site, which is formed at the interface of two adjacent subunits in the transmembrane domain of the receptor, should also aid the development of new lead compounds both as anthelmintics and as therapies for a wide variety of human neurological disorders

A comparison of glycine-and ivermectin-mediated conformational changes in the glycine receptor ligand-binding domain

Glycine receptor chloride channels are Cys-loop receptor proteins that isomerize between a low affinity closed state and a high affinity ion-conducting state. There is currently much interest in understanding the mechanisms that link affinity changes with conductance changes. This essentially involves an agonist binding in the glycine receptor ligand-binding site initiating local conformational changes that propagate in a wave towards the channel gate. However, it has proved difficult to convincingly distinguish those agonist-induced domain movements that are critical for triggering activation from those that are simply local deformations to accommodate ligands in the site. We employed voltage-clamp fluorometry to compare conformational changes in the ligand-binding site in response to activation by glycine, which binds locally, and ivermectin, which binds in the transmembrane domain. We reasoned that ivermectin-mediated activation should initiate a conformational wave that propagates from the pore-lining domain towards the ligand-binding domain, eliciting conformational changes in those extracellular domains that are allosterically linked to the gate. We found that ivermectin indeed elicited conformational changes in ligand-binding domain loops C, D and F. This implies that conformational changes in these domains are important for activation. This result also provides a mechanism to explain how ivermectin potentiates glycine-induced channel activation

Incompatibility between a pair of residues from the Pre-M1 linker and Cys-loop blocks surface expression of the Glycine Receptor

Regulation of cell membrane excitability can be achieved either by modulating the functional properties of cell membrane-expressed single channels or by varying the number of expressed channels. Whereas the structural basis underlying single channel properties has been intensively studied, the structural basis contributing to surface expression is less well characterized. Here we demonstrate that homologous substitution of the pre-M1 linker from the DOI 10.1074/jbc.M111.325126 subunit prevents surface expression of the α1 glycine receptor chloride channel. By investigating a series of chimeras comprising α1 and DOI 10.1074/jbc.M111.325126 subunits, we hypothesized that this effect was due to incompatibility between a pair of positively charged residues, which lie in close proximity to each other in the tertiary structure, from the pre-M1 linker and Cys-loop. Abolishing either positive charge restored surface expression. We propose that incompatibility (electrostatic repulsion) between this pair of residues misfolds the glycine receptor, and in consequence, the protein is retained in the cytoplasm and prevented from surface expression by the quality control machinery. This hypothesis suggests a novel mechanism, i.e. residue incompatibility, for explaining the mutation-induced reduction in channel surface expression, often present in the cases of hereditary hyperekplexia

Molecular mechanisms of Cys-loop ion channel receptor modulation by ivermectin

Ivermectin is an anthelmintic drug that works by inhibiting neuronal activity and muscular contractility in arthropods and nematodes. It works by activating glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluClRs) at nanomolar concentrations. These receptors, found exclusively in invertebrates, belong to the pentameric Cys-loop receptor family of ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs). Higher (micromolar) concentrations of ivermectin also activate or modulate vertebrate Cys-loop receptors, including the excitatory nicotinic and the inhibitory GABA type-A and glycine receptors (GlyRs). An X-ray crystal structure of ivermectin complexed with the C. elegans α GluClR demonstrated that ivermectin binds to the transmembrane domain in a cleft at the interface of adjacent subunits. It also identified three hydrogen bonds thought to attach ivermectin to its site. Site-directed mutagenesis and voltage-clamp electrophysiology have also been employed to probe the binding site for ivermectin in α1 GlyRs. These have raised doubts as to whether the hydrogen bonds are essential for high ivermectin potency. Due to its lipophilic nature, it is likely that ivermectin accumulates in the membrane and binds reversibly (i.e., weakly) to its site. Several lines of evidence suggest that ivermectin opens the channel pore via a structural change distinct from that induced by the neurotransmitter agonist. Conformational changes occurring at locations distant from the pore can be probed using voltage-clamp fluorometry (VCF), a technique which involves quantitating agonist-induced fluorescence changes from environmentally sensitive fluorophores covalently attached to receptor domains of interest. This technique has demonstrated that ivermectin induces a global conformational change that propagates from the transmembrane domain to the neurotransmitter binding site, thus suggesting a mechanism by which ivermectin potentiates neurotransmitter-gated currents. Together, this information provides new insights into the mechanisms of action of this important drug

Selective modulators of α5-containing GABAA receptors and their therapeutic significance

GABA receptors containing the α subunit (αGABARs) are found mainly in the hippocampus where they mediate a tonic chloride leak current and contribute a slow component to GABAergic inhibitory synaptic currents. Their inhibitory effect on the excitability of hippocampal neurons at least partly explains why changes in the level of activity of αGABARs affect cognition, learning and memory. These receptors have been implicated as potential therapeutic targets for a range of clinical conditions including age-related dementia, stroke, schizophrenia, Down syndrome and anesthetic- induced amnesia. Accordingly, a range of pharmacological modulators that selectively target αGABARs, as either inhibitors or allosteric enhancers, have been developed. Although many of these compounds show therapeutic effects in animal models of the above clinical disorders, none has been marketed yet due to unsuccessful clinical trials and toxicity in humans. These experiments have also revealed paradoxical effects of αGABAR modulation (e.g., cognitive impairments can be reversed by both positive and negative modulation), suggesting that our knowledge of the physiological roles of αGABARs is incomplete. This review highlights the various positive and negative modulators for αGABARs that have been developed, key findings concerning their effects in behavioral studies, and their importance across a number of therapeutic fields. It also highlights some of the gaps in our knowledge of the physiological and pathological roles of αGABARs

GABAa receptor α and γ subunits shape synaptic currents via different mechanisms

Synaptic GABAA receptors (GABAARs) mediate most of the inhibitory neurotransmission in the brain. The majority of these receptors are comprised of α1, β2, and γ2 subunits. The amygdala, a structure involved in processing emotional stimuli, expresses α2 and γ1 subunits at high levels. The effect of these subunits on GABA AR-mediated synaptic transmission is not known. Understanding the influence of these subunits on GABAAR-mediated synaptic currents may help in identifying the roles and locations of amygdala synapses that contain these subunits. Here, we describe the biophysical and synaptic properties of pure populations of α1β2γ2, α2β2γ2, α1β2γ1 and α2β2γ1 GABAARs. Their synaptic properties were examined in engineered synapses, whereas their kinetic properties were studied using rapid agonist application, and single channel recordings. All macropatch currents activated rapidly

Glycine receptors (version 2019.4) in the IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology Database

The inhibitory glycine receptor (nomenclature as agreed by the NC-IUPHAR Subcommittee on Glycine Receptors) is a member of the Cys-loop superfamily of transmitter-gated ion channels that includes the zinc activated channels, GABAA, nicotinic acetylcholine and 5-HT3 receptors [63]. The receptor is expressed either as a homo-pentamer of α subunits, or a complex now thought to harbour 2α and 3β subunits [30, 7], that contain an intrinsic anion channel. Four differentially expressed isoforms of the α-subunit (α1-α4) and one variant of the β-subunit (β1, GLRB, P48167) have been identified by genomic and cDNA cloning. Further diversity originates from alternative splicing of the primary gene transcripts for α1 (α1INS and α1del), α2 (α2A and α2B), α3 (α3S and α3L) and β (βΔ7) subunits and by mRNA editing of the α2 and α3 subunit [80, 91, 18]. Both α2 splicing and α3 mRNA editing can produce subunits (i.e., α2B and α3P185L) with enhanced agonist sensitivity. Predominantly, the mature form of the receptor contains α1 (or α3) and β subunits while the immature form is mostly composed of only α2 subunits. RNA transcripts encoding the α4-subunit have not been detected in adult humans. The N-terminal domain of the α-subunit contains both the agonist and strychnine binding sites that consist of several discontinuous regions of amino acids. Inclusion of the β-subunit in the pentameric glycine receptor contributes to agonist binding, reduces single channel conductance and alters pharmacology. The β-subunit also anchors the receptor, via an amphipathic sequence within the large intracellular loop region, to gephyrin. The latter is a cytoskeletal attachment protein that binds to a number of subsynaptic proteins involved in cytoskeletal structure and thus clusters and anchors hetero-oligomeric receptors to the synapse [86, 51, 53]. G-protein βγ subunits enhance the open state probability of native and recombinant glycine receptors by association with domains within the large intracellular loop [122, 121]. Intracellular chloride concentration modulates the kinetics of native and recombinant glycine receptors [94]. Intracellular Ca2+ appears to increase native and recombinant glycine receptor affinity, prolonging channel open events, by a mechanism that does not involve phosphorylation [24]

Glycine receptors in GtoPdb v.2023.1

The inhibitory glycine receptor (nomenclature as agreed by the NC-IUPHAR Subcommittee on Glycine Receptors) is a member of the Cys-loop superfamily of transmitter-gated ion channels that includes the GABAA, nicotinic acetylcholine and 5-HT3 receptors and Zn2+- activated channels. The glycine receptor is expressed either as a homo-pentamer of α subunits, or a complex of 4α and 1β subunits [131], that contains an intrinsic anion channel. Four differentially expressed isoforms of the α-subunit (α1-α4) and one variant of the β-subunit (β1, GLRB, P48167) have been identified by genomic and cDNA cloning. Further diversity originates from alternative splicing of the primary gene transcripts for α1 (α1INS and α1del), α2 (α2A and α2B), α3 (α3S and α3L) and β (βΔ7) subunits and by mRNA editing of the α2 and α3 subunit [20, 84, 94]. Both α2 splicing and α3 mRNA editing can produce subunits (i.e., α2B and α3P185L) with enhanced agonist sensitivity. Predominantly, the adult form of the receptor contains α1 (or α3) and β subunits whereas the immature form is mostly composed of only α2 subunits [79]. The α4 subunit is a pseudogene in humans [66]. High resolution molecular structures are available for α1 homomeric, α3 homomeric, and αβ hteromeric receptors in a variety of ligand-induced conformations [19, 129, 19, 48, 49, 50]. As in other Cys-loop receptors, the orthosteric binding site for agonists and the competitive antagonist strychnine is formed at the interfaces between the subunits’ extracellular domains. Inclusion of the β-subunit in the pentameric glycine receptor contributes to agonist binding, reduces single channel conductance and alters pharmacology. The β-subunit also anchors the receptor, via an amphipathic sequence within the large intracellular loop region, to gephyrin. This a cytoskeletal attachment protein that binds to a number of subsynaptic proteins involved in cytoskeletal structure and thus clusters and anchors hetero-oligomeric receptors to the synapse [55, 89]. G protein βγ subunits enhance the open state probability of native and recombinant glycine receptors by association with domains within the large intracellular loop [125, 124]. Intracellular chloride concentration modulates the kinetics of native and recombinant glycine receptors [97]. Intracellular Ca2+ appears to increase native and recombinant glycine receptor affinity, prolonging channel open events, by a mechanism that does not involve phosphorylation [26]. Extracellular Zn2+ potentiates GlyR function at nanomolar concentrations [87]. and causes inhibition at higher micromolar concentrations (17)

Coccidia (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) Infecting Cricetid Rodents from Alaska, U.S.A., and Northeastern Siberia, Russia, and Description of a New \u3ci\u3eEimeria\u3c/i\u3e Species from \u3ci\u3eMyodes rutilus\u3c/i\u3e, the Northern Red-Backed Vole

During the summers of 2000, 2001, and 2002, 1,950 fecal samples from 4 families, 10 genera, and 16 species of rodents in Alaska, U.S.A. (N = 1,711), and Siberia, Russia (N = 239) were examined for coccidia (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae). The 4 families sampled were Dipodidae (jumping mice), Erethizontidae (New World porcupines), Muridae (mice, rats), and Cricetidae (voles, lemmings). Nineteen oocyst morphotypes were observed, of which 10 were consistent with descriptions of known coccidia species from murid hosts, 8 were similar to oocysts described previously from other genera than those in which they are found here (and are called Eimeria species 1-8), and 1 is described as new. In the Dipodidae, all from Alaska, 0/15 Zapus hudsonius had coccidian oocysts in their feces when examined. In the Erethizontidae, all from Alaska, 0/5 Erethizon dorsatum had oocysts when examined. In the Muridae, all from Russia, 0/5 Apodemus peninsulae had oocysts when examined. In the Cricetidae from Alaska, we found the following infections: 15/72 (21%) Lemmus trimucronatus,/i\u3e (Eimeria spp. 3, 4, 5); 10/29 (34%) Microtus longicaudus (Eimeria saxei, Eimeria wenrichi); 41/88 (47%) Microtus miurus (Eimeria coahiliensis, Eimeria ochrogasteri, Eimeria saxei, Eimeria wenrichi); 278/405 (68%) Microtus oeconomus (E. ochrogasteri, E. saxei, E. wenrichi); 116/159 (73%) Microtus pennsylvanicus (E. saxei, E. wenrichi); 9/52 (17%) Microtus xanthognathus (E. wenrichi); 218/699 (31%) Myodes rutilus (Eimeria cernae, Eimeria gallati, Eimeria marconii, Isospora clethrionomydis, Isospora clethrionomysis, and a new Eimeria species); 34/187 (18%) Synaptomys borealis (Eimeria spp. 6, 7, 8, Eimeria synaptomys). In the Cricetidae from Siberia, we found the following infections: 5/24 (21%) Alticola macrotis (Eimeria spp.1, 2); 0/5 Dicrostonyx torquatus; 1/11 (9%) Lemmus lemmus (Eimeria sp. 3); 30/48 (52%) Mi. oeconomus (E. saxei, E. wenrichi); 5/53 (9%) Myodes rufocanus (E. cernae, E. gallati, I. clethrionomydis, the new Eimeria sp.); 21/85 (25%) Myodes rutilus (E. cernae, E. gallati, E. marconii, the new Eimeria sp.); 0/8 Myopus schisticolor. Oocysts of the new species, found in both My. rutilus (Alaska, Siberia) and My. rufocanus (Siberia), are ellipsoidal with a striated outer wall and measured 30.6 × 20.5 (27–33 × 19–23) μm; micropyle and oocyst residuum absent, but a polar granule is present. Sporocysts are ellipsoidal, 14.5 × 9.1 (13–16 × 8–10) μm; Stieda body, sub-Stieda body and sporocyst residuum are present